The world is full of misdirection, with nothing but past discoveries to continue to fuel an

undefined understanding of the future. Ideals based on fact or reason, supported by further facts

or reason, have seamlessly integrated their way into life as a way to navigate day-to-day

decisions or thought processes. On the other hand, there are unexplainable incidents that create

uncertainty among the public. The meaning of life, life after death, if God is real, if the moon

landing was real, if John F. Kennedy’s assassination was an inside job, incidents or propositions

that leave room for ample uncertainty leave only space for perspective to generate one's personal

belief. Although these explanatory beliefs become generated from uncertainty, multiple forms of

cognitive bias support the further belief of ideas based on theory rather than fact. A recent study

found that 42% of people without a high school education believed in at least one conspiracy

theory, while only 23% of people with postgraduate education believed in a conspiracy theory

(Kluger). Therefore, a lack of education and knowledge-based in fact, with a mix of an

incomprehensible world, leads to more people divulging explanatory beliefs. Conspiracy theories

are often associated with monumental or historical events. Society continues to further believe

and develop theories based on societal patterns and psychological bias.

From two countries battling out in a space race to multiple men stepping foot on the

moon, history was changed forever. In July of 1969, mind-shattering images and stories revealed

Earth to humanity as a tiny rock in a vast sea of nothingness. This changed the world and

changed society forever. In a race to the moon between The United States and the Soviet Union,

America touched down a rocket where, in total, 12 men were able to take steps on the moon.

They shared testimonials about the different states of mind established after space, and about

how insane the incident was. For the millions in the audience, there was no plan or rulebook to

define what or how to even comprehend such an event, which began generating beliefs that were

accusatory of the moon landing being faked. An event that was filmed, televised, broadcasted,

and testified about by returning astronauts, still split the population from those who believed and

those who found it easier to believe in alternate ideas, than the reality at hand. The origin of the

Moon Landing conspiracy theories began as soon as the event occurred, and since has been

countlessly debunked. Author Rich Cohen discussed a man named William Kaysing, as he was

one of the largest origins of the moon landing conspiracy theories. The man worked for a

company that made engines and personally came to the conclusion that the current technology

could not bring the country to the moon. When it happened, Kaysing researched to find any way

to prove why the landing was a hoax. Each of Kaysing’s theories was compiled together into a

book known as W e Never Went to the Moon: America’ s Thirty Billion Dollar Swindle , which

listed publicly known conspiracy theories. Many began to reach for conclusions based on

conspiracy and as more either supported or rejected the beliefs, Kaysing further justified his

alternate ideals. Within the journal, each of Kaysing's theories was listed while being debunked

with direct proof or facts. For example, “Old Glory” represents the idea that because the flag

appeared to be waving and taut throughout pictures on the moon, it was faked and seemingly a

set. As the moon exists within the ever-filled empty vacuum of space, wind should not exist and

the flag should not move. Though, when looking at the facts and evidence surrounding the idea,

it can be found that the flag was reinforced with a cross beam to promote victory through the

flag's appearance (Cohen). Even with the theories that were promoted at the time being

countlessly debunked many still believe in alternate theories. This explicitly reveals the insane

impact of the moon landing and how unfathomable it was. With theories, facts instead are known

as inconsistencies that can be manipulated to create the ideal reality or perspective around a

particular event, and with landmark incidents the pattern of attempting to explain the

unexplainable remains prevalent.

Continually, unfortunate circumstances such as death create hysteria upon the public,

similar to landing on the moon. For instance, just after noon on November 22, 1963, former

president John F. Kennedy was assassinated. He was shot twice, once in the head and once in the

neck, and although being directly rushed to the hospital he was pronounced dead at 1:00 pm

(JFK Library). Kennedy himself portrayed a, more or less, perfect image. He represented a good

face for the country, with a beautiful family life, and a representation of what may have been

considered the “American dream.” There was no thought that this might happen to someone that

the public held so close, though ultimately as the president, a convertible may not be the most

beneficial choice for a drive around the city. Instantly, the public began racing to draw

conclusions about what happened, as this was also a mind-shattering event. The POTUS, whom

everyone seemed to love, was murdered in front of the entire country and unsupported reasoning

began to circulate in order to ease the mind of the public. Though contradictory to the moon

landing conspiracy theories, the president's assassination theories began deflating much sooner

and faster as the reality of this monumental event set in, though until then minds pondered for the

answer.

The confusion surrounding Kennedy’s death was not just amongst the American public,

but among leaders as well. The succeeding president Lyndon B. Johnson himself took to

explanatory beliefs, basing his theory on past events and broad connections. The U.S. Director of

Central Intelligence Richard Helms said in a 1975 interview that Johnson, “used to go around

saying that the reason (Kennedy) was assassinated was that he had assassinated President (Ngo

Dinh) Diem and this was just justice” (Kellman & Durkin). Within an alternate view, the KGB

from the former Soviet Union believed that Johnson was actually directly a part of the

assassination of President Kennedy (Kellman & Durkin). Different conclusions were drawn due

to difficulty in understanding the reality at hand. After thousands of interviews, studies, and

leads followed, it was concluded that the assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. Within

Johnson's beliefs, the assassination of the former Vietnamese president was actually due to a

coup by South Vietnamese generals, and within the idea that Johnson was a part of the murder,

no evidence was ever truly provided. Once more, compared to the moon landing, people have

experienced death and loss prior to the passing of President Kennedy, therefore as theories were

debunked, there was less room for further explanatory beliefs. Still, very few people have been

to, or experienced, the moon which is where the difference is directly found. On the other hand,

both events hold extreme significance in points of history that became instantly unfathomable,

and because of this humanity craves explanation and the mind creates ideas to fill the space of

unexplainable experiences.

Once more, humanity is a being who desires reason, and as people, one fundamentally

needs to understand why events occurred. In any event throughout history that holds weight upon

society, theories against the common understanding prevail, and it is due to the mind defining a

crisis event and divulging in the desire for reason. In addition, to attempt to begin defining the

term crisis or unexpected event, it must be understood how it is perspective based. The article

reveals how subjective beliefs and judgment are what determine how to label an event a crisis,

though it can only be reviewed for thorough comprehension with time. They explained a current

definition that is more substantial stating, “a working definition of societal crisis as impactful

and rapid societal change that calls existing power structures, norms of conduct, or even the

existence of specific people or groups into question” (Prooijen and Douglas). Therefore, events

that bring thoughts of curiosity and disbelief to the mind are what create conspiracy theories and

assist in developing the reasons behind them. Throughout history, there have seemingly been two

large spikes of known and listed conspiracy theories. The first was in 1900, at the peak of the

second industrial revolution. More companies, factories, money, and uncertainty flooded the

nation which caused a heap of explanatory beliefs to be generated, especially in those who felt

nameless. Next, was in the 1940s and 1950s, with direct relation to the Cold War (Prooijen and

Douglas). This era was known for the uncertainty in the country's safety and what could happen

in their day-to-day lives. Continually the country held many secrets and classified information

regarding the situation in the country, though it was held by the public, resulting in uncertainty

and only theories to explain the reality at hand. Beyond societal patterns and crisis events,

cognitive bias is heavily prevalent in the formation of conspiracy theories.

Overall, conspiracy theories are used as an attempt to make the unexplainable

experiences of the world make more sense. After a crisis event, such as the assassination of

President Kennedy, proportionality bias may be very prevalent, as the mind explores the idea of

small causes leading to such crisis effects (Kluger). Meaning as the more people continue to join

theories, like Johnson believing Kennedy’s assassination was for vengeance, the more likely

people are to digress away from truth, fact, and even reason. Additionally, confirmation and

reactance bias is very prevalent within conspiracy theories. Conspiracy theories are believed by

more people who wish to stand out from the crowd, and when they are attempted to be

disproven, they take information and interpret it as support or continual evidence of why such

conspiracy theories are true (Richardson). Think about the moon landing theories and William

Kaysing. As ample evidence was released by the public, government, and even NASA

debunking Kaysing's theories, he still furthered his sporadic beliefs with more explanatory

reasoning. Finally, Kaysing responded with only examples, beliefs, and his altered perspective, it

only furthered his idea that the moon landing was not real. The more people to push against

conspiracist ideals, the more they believe in those theories. Kaysing will never change his ways

of thinking due to the multiple types of cognitive bias found throughout his perspective and

experiences, just like many other conspiracy theorists. Therefore, with a combination of

proportionality, confirmation, and reactance bias conspiracy theories become believable because

the idea of furthered perspectives becomes removed from the thought processes behind the

creation of explanatory events.

In conclusion, the most undemanding attempt to comprehend reality is to remove any

immaterial assumptions leaving one with the closest possibility of truth. Though, unfortunately,

explanatory beliefs become generated from uncertainty, and cognitive bias supports the further

belief of ideas based on theory rather than facts. I believe there is no possible way to remove

conspiracy theories from emerging, though I believe there are methods to generate more positive

and well-informed opinions to try and comprehend the unexplainable. When it comes to it,

people will believe what they want to believe. Theories are not a negative subject, though when

formed in an attempt to understand reality, dangers are immediately found. Many may choose to

believe in conspiracies purely for the excitement of the unknown or even to stand out, though

this can still be dangerous as it cultivates a disregard for reality. Crisis events require deeper

questioning and understanding that is centered on multiple perspectives, lacking any bias found

in one's preconceptions or personal ideals. Doing so is attainable through personal research and

self-education upon events that create curiosity. When something occurs that flags

misunderstanding, mass media should first be analyzed. This will alert one of the dominant

narratives being projected to a mass audience. Next, alternate narratives and biased media that

contradict one's initial response should be understood. This entirely broadens one's sense of

perspective and removes the opportunity for reactance bias, as the mind is now open to different

angles rather than only one side of an equation. Self-inquiry must revolve around the idea of

broadened perspective and taking in more than any dominant narrative, but instead focusing on

alternate views as well to fully understand the truth of the uncertainty that occurs in our world.

Explanatory beliefs become prevalent in monumental or crisis occurrences and without personal

research they will remain prevalent. Societal patterns and psychological bias continue to further

humanity's creation of conspiracy theories in a never-ending attempt to understand the

unexplainable experience of life itself.

Works Cited

Cohen, Rich. “The Paris Review - How Stanley Kubrick Staged the Moon Landing - The Paris

Review.” Paris Review , 18 July 2019,

https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2019/07/18/how-stanley-kubrick-staged-the-moon-l

anding-and-other-stories/. Accessed 25 May 2023.

“JFK In History- November 22, 1963: Death of the President.” JFK Library ,

https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/jfk-in-history/november-22-1963-death-of-the-

president. Accessed 25 May 2023.

Kellman, Laurie, and Alanna Durkin. “JFK files release does little to quell conspiracy theories.”

PBS , 28 October 2017,

https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/jfk-files-release-does-little-to-quell-conspiracy-th

eories. Accessed 25 May 2023.

Kluger, Jeffrey. “Why Do So Many People Believe in Conspiracy Theories? | Time.” TIME , 15

October 2017, https://time.com/4965093/conspiracy-theories-beliefs/ . Accessed 25 May

2023.

Prooijen, Jan-Willem van, and Karen M. Douglas. “Conspiracy theories as part of history: The

role of societal crisis situations.” NCBI , 29 June 2017,

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5646574/. Accessed 25 May 2023.

Richardson, Jesse “Cognitive Biases Wall Posters” Creative Commons, 2020

https://www.yourbias.is/ . Accessed 25 May 2023.